限制最低售价的约定反垄断分析

一般欧盟和美国及其他国家[1]都认为限制最低售价的约定(Minimum Resales Price Maintenance (RPM) Agreement)是违反反垄断法律的,具体分析如下。

1.US Law

(1) Minimum RPM(Resale Price Maintenance Agreements最低转售价格安排)

在美国,在Leegin案之后,最高法院取消了对minimum RPM的绝对违法(illegal per se)认定,使其也受到Rule of Reason(理性规则)的约束,只有按照该原则审查之后认为该行为有不合理限制贸易的效果,才可认定为违法。但是美国个别州法律仍旧禁止或者不承认minimum RPM。加州,根据其Cartwright Act (CA),RPM (包括最低售价协议)是绝对违法的。

但是,在联邦法院案例United States v. Colgate & Co., 250 U.S. 300 (1919) 中,联邦最高法认为“Sherman Act does not prevent a manufacturer engaged in a private business from announcing in advance the prices at which his goods may be resold and refusing to deal with wholesalers and retailers who do not conform to such prices.”即如果制造商提前宣布允许的分销价格,然后拒绝和不遵守其价格政策的分销商合作,这种行为并不违反反垄断法。因此确立了Colgate Principle。在Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Serv. Corp. – 465 U.S. 752, 104 S. Ct. 1464 (1984)一案中,最高法院确认了如下原则:反垄断案的原告应提供直接或间接证据来合理地证明生产商和其他人合谋旨在为实现非法目的而共同策划(最低售价),本案仍旧强调独立的行为不落入该范围。加州,联邦法院确立的Colgate Principle是有效的,在Chavez v. Whirlpool Corp., 93 Cal. App. 4th. 363 (2001)一案中,被告宣布了一项规定其产品的最低转售价格的政策,并且终止不按照规定销售经销商的合作。法院认为这样行为符合Colgate Principle,并作出有利于被告的判决。在Darush v. Revision LP 2013 WL 1749539,中,法院认为“[I]f a seller does no more than announce a policy designed to restrain trade and declines to sell to those who fail to adhere to that policy, no illegal combination is established.”即如果卖家仅仅是宣布了一项政策,然后拒绝向不遵守该政策的人卖货,这种行为并不违法。

此外,FTC官网 “Manufacturer-Imposed Requirements” section :“If a manufacturer, on its own, adopts a policy regarding a desired level of prices, the law allows the manufacturer to deal only with retailers who agree to that policy. A manufacturer also may stop dealing with a retailer that does not follow its resale price policy. That is, a manufacturer can implement a dealer policy on a “take it or leave it” basis.”[2]

但是,执行Colgate Principle要很小心,因为很容易就会被认定属于Vertical Agreement,在Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Johnson & Johnson Vision Care, Inc. (No. 3:15-cv-00734 (M.D. Fla. Nov. 4, 2015))中,尽管被告J&J主张其Unilateral Price Policy (UPP)是单方的,但是法院认为属于Agreement,基于以下理由:Implemented the policies in response to retailer requests and complaints about discounting;Revised the policies in response to retailer feedback and negotiations;Agreed with its distributors to implement and enforce the policies against retailers;Coerced retailers such as Costco to enter into the agreement。 简单来说,就是有证据证明J&J制定的UPP是和零售商协商后的结果,因此构成Agreement。

简单而言:在美国,RPM (a) 如果根据Rule of Reason不合理地限制竞争,则根据联邦法律是非法的; (b)根据某些州法律,本身是非法的。一个合法的规避途径是UPP。

(2) 其他非价格纵向协议

目前,非价格纵向协议都不是per se illegal,而是根据Rule of Reason规则审查。

(3) 法律后果

尽管大多数美国反垄断执法行动都是民事案件,但Sherman Act(即美国反垄断法)也规定了刑事责任,违反它的个人和企业可能会受到司法部的起诉。刑事起诉通常仅限于故意和明显的违规行为,例如竞争对手固定价格或操纵投标。 Sherman Act对公司可处以最高 1 亿美元的刑事处罚,对个人可处以 100 万美元的刑事处罚,并处以最高 10 年的监禁[3]

2.EU/UK Anti-trust law

在欧盟和英国,Reseller Agreement是Vertical Agreement,属于EU/UK反垄断相关法律规范的对象。这个Agreement在UK和EU会扩大解释,即不仅仅包括直接的Agreement,还包括Concerted conduct。

(1) RPM 协议:

根据欧盟法律,含有hardcore restriction的协议被视为破坏竞争,因而违法。RPM 协议旨在直接或间接限制买方确定其销售价格的能力,但RPM 协议不一定含有hardcore restriction,甚至还可以提高效率,尤其是在供应商驱动的情况下。根据 EU Vertical Block Exemption Regulation(Revised VBER)第 4 条 (a) 点,供应商施加最高转售价格(the imposition by the supplier of a maximum resale price)或建议转售价格(recommendation of a resale price)不是hardcore restriction,

此外, 根据Revised VBER,以上规定“不应适用于包含某些类型的严格竞争限制的纵向协议,例如最低和固定转售价格以及某些类型的地域保护,包括阻止有效使用互联网进行销售或某些在线广告限制”[4]. 因此,设定最低转售价格(minimum resale prices)被视为hardcore restriction,不受豁免。此外,在美国被认为合法的 MAPs也被认为是通过间接手段实行RPM (Guidelines on vertical restraints 189)。该规定同样适用于网上销售商(provider of online intermediation services) (Guidelines on vertical restraints 194) 。

需要注意的是Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) 第101条仅仅限制以限制、防止或歪曲EU内部竞争为目的,在EU成员国之间产生影响的协议。但是该条一般被扩大解释,在the Webb-Pomerene 案中, EU法同样适用于在EU没有生产活动的美国公司。且生厂商对价格的控制不仅仅限于Agreement,监管机构一般采取扩大解释,Concerted action等也被认定为RPM。在英国,生产商使用价格监控软件都被认为违法,可能受到Competition and Market Authority (CMA)行政处罚[5]

但是,对于Recommended resale prices (建议转售价格RRP),如果零售商仍然可以以它自己决定的价格转售,并且没有威胁或经济激励来执行 RRP,这是不违法的[6]

(2) 在线/区域销售限制 Restriction of online sale/sale territory:

Revised VBER Art. 4(e) 明确规定禁止限制买方或顾客“有效使用互联网”或者要求买家只能在实体店销售,该行为属于hardcore restriction[7]。Revised VBER Art. 4(a)-(d)则规定禁止限制销售区域。英国Competition Act 1998 Chapter 1 Section 2 (2)也覆盖了这几种情况。

在2014年的一个德国案例中,Higher Regional Court of Schleswig-Holstein认可下级法院关于Casio Europe关于限制零售商在eBay 和 Amazon等平台售卖的违法判决。下级法院认为,Casio Europe禁止其零售商在这些网络平台售卖违反了Article 101 TFEU以及德国本地法Section 1 of the Act against Restraints of Competition[8],因为这种行为限制了竞争,是符合Article 4 (b) VABER下的hardcore restriction。

(3) EU豁免

(a) 非hardcore restriction豁免

Hardcore restriction 包括:resale price maintenance (RPM) or certain territorial and customer restrictions

(b) 市场份额豁免

EU VBER的豁免仅仅适用于生产商和经销商的市场份额低于30%的情况,而且当出现hardcore restriction的时候,该豁免也不再适用。如果市场份额超过了30%,则需要进行个案分析。

(4) 法律后果:

根据TFEU Article 101[9]以及UK Competition Act 1998 Chapter 1 Section 2:任何以上协议会被认定无效。此外,违反第 101 条规定的企业也可能被欧盟委员会(European Commission)处以高达其全球年营业额 10% 的罚款,英国也有类似规定(见UK Competition Act 1998 Chapter 1 Section 36(8))。同时,EU成员国通常有自己的国内竞争法,只要不违反欧盟法律,国内法也可以执行。欧盟委员会有准司法性质,其决定可以向欧洲法院(ECJ)上诉。

在UK CMA对Korg日本母公司和UK子公司的反垄断处罚中,CMA调查发现Korg UK 运营和执行范围广泛的定价政策,其目的是确保经销商不会在线宣传或销售低于 Korg UK 指定的最低价格的相关产品[10]。实际上,Korg并没有和经销商签订书面的最低售价协议,仅仅会有一个Price Lists[11], CMA通过具体的调查认定Korg会不时和经销商沟通其Price List并监视后者执行[12]并且会告知经销商,如果不遵守最低售价,可能面临的后果包括:‘losing the permit to have this product’, having an ‘account immediately suspended’ and having ‘stock permits and credit facility removed’[13],CMA认定存在Sanction,尽管没有证据证明有实际Sanction发生。所以,尽管Korg使用各种规避方式,但是CMA认定存在RPM,虽然没有直接Agreement,但是存在Concerted action,最后罚款1.5M英镑。这个行政处罚决定在UK仍旧是EU的时候,它同时依据了英国的CA和EU的TFEU,目前虽然TFEU已经不适用,但是CA仍旧有效。

3. 规避策略

(1).The Colgate doctrine (单方价格政策)

上述规定仅仅针对转售价格“协议”。因此,如果一家公司单方面宣布经销商必须以最低价格出售其产品(UPP),否则将终止合作,则严格来说,双方并未签订相关协议,即不受上述规定限制。这个原则源自美国,在EU和英国,也可以适用,但是监管更加严格,在英国,建议转售价格 (Recommended resale prices RRP) 是合法的。但是,生产商应注意销售人员不应通过使用暗示或间接强制的方式要求零售商维持某个价格[14]。所以,美国适用的UPP在UK/EU可能就有很大风险。目前,在美国有市场的大公司一般都会针对美国市场有一个单独的UPP (包括Anker)。

(2). Agent (代理)

供应商可以通过代理(agent or on consignment)方式分销其产品,这样产品的所有权在到达终端客户之前一直属于供应商。在这种情况下,“经销商”不是经销商,而是代理人。因此,也就没有关于下游价格的“协议”。这种“例外”也绕过了转售价格维持“协议”,因为一般来说,根据反垄断法,代理人与其委托人之间不存在“合谋conspire”。

(3). MAPs

最低广告价格政策(Minimum advertised pricing (MAP policies)。这种政策常与为零售商提供营销资金的合作广告计划结合使用——限制了零售商和分销商以低于某个价格宣传的能力。零售商实际上可能会以低于这些广告价格的价格出售,因此也就没有将价格定在某个水平的协议。但在EU和UK,该策略不适用,因为被认为是间接Minimum RPM。


[1] According to the Ordinance on Competition of Curacao, the registering location of the counterparty: “Agreements between undertakings, decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices of undertakings, which have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition in the Curaçao market or part thereof, are prohibited.” (Article 3.1.1) and agreements “setting selling prices or other terms and conditions of sale” are deemed to be a violation of the first Article 3.1.1 (Article 3.1.2). The prohibited agreements and decisions pursuant to the first paragraph are null and void (Article 3.1.3). The de minimis exception of the prohibition if the if the joint market share of the undertakings does not exceed 30% (Article 3.2) (http://ftac.cw/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/20171205-Informal-English-translation-national-ordinance-on-competition.pdf).Violation of the forgoing provision would resulted in binding directive or administrative fines or penalty(Article 7.1).

[2] https://www.ftc.gov/advice-guidance/competition-guidance/guide-antitrust-laws/dealings-supply-chain/manufacturer-imposed-requirements

[3] https://www.ftc.gov/advice-guidance/competition-guidance/guide-antitrust-laws/antitrust-laws

[4]  “should not apply to vertical agreements containing certain types of severe restrictions of competition, such as minimum and fixed resale prices and certain types of territorial protection, including the prevention of the effective use of the internet to sell or certain restrictions of online advertising.” (Guidelines on vertical restraints 185)

[5] https://www.traverssmith.com/knowledge/knowledge-container/cma-beats-the-drum-on-resale-price-maintenance/

[6] https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/resale-price-maintenance-advice-for-retailers/resale-price-maintenance-advice-for-retailers

[7] Hardcore online restrictions include inter alia: Requiring the buyer to sell the contract goods or services only in a physical space or with physically present personnel

[8] https://www.mondaq.com/germany/gaming/334524/german-court-rules-against-casio-europes-prohibition-of-online-sales-via-internet-platforms

[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_101_of_the_Treaty_on_the_Functioning_of_the_European_Union

[10] CMA Decision of the Competition and Markets Authority,18. < https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5f074e903a6f40041295c1da/Korg_100720_non_confidentail_decision.pdf>

[11] CMA Decision of the Competition and Markets Authority,24.

[12] CMA Decision of the Competition and Markets Authority,24-25.

[13] CMA Decision of the Competition and Markets Authority,40.

[14] https://www.traverssmith.com/knowledge/knowledge-container/cma-beats-the-drum-on-resale-price-maintenance/

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